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Flight Officer

Flight officer

A navigator is the person onboard a ship responsible for the navigation of the vessel. On aircraft, the position may also be referred to as a flight officer. The navigator's responsibilities include planning the journey, advising the captain (or pilot) while en route, and ensuring that hazards or obstacles are avoided. In the United States Air Force, the Navigator Badge is earned by officers so qualified. Depending on the aircraft and job responsibilities, navigators in the Air Force may also be referred to as Weapon System Officers (WSO) or Electronic Warfare Officers (EWO). In the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, the equivalent position is known as a Naval Flight Officer (NFO). Shipborne Navigators in the U.S. Navy must be Surface Warfare qualified. In the Royal Air Force, the term navigator is always used for the holder of this position in aircraft, including the backseat crew member in two-seater aircraft. Like pilots, navigators are always commissioned officers. They wear the single-wing aircrew brevet, with a capital 'N' in the centre.

Navigation

: This article concerns navigation in the sense of determination of position and direction on the surface of the Earth. See navigation (disambiguation) for other meanings. There are several traditions of navigation. In the pre-modern history of human migration and discovery of new lands by navigating the oceans, a few peoples have excelled as sea-faring explorers. Prominent examples are the Phoenicians, the Ancient Greeks, the Malays, the Persians, Arabians, the Norse and, perhaps more than any others, the peoples of the Pacific Ocean, particularly Polynesians and Micronesians.

Polynesian navigation

The Polynesian navigators routinely crossed thousands of miles of open ocean, to tiny inhabited islands, using only their own senses and knowledge, passed by oral tradition, from navigator to apprentice. In Eastern Polynesia, navigators, in order to locate directions at various times of day and year, memorized extensive facts concerning:
- the motion of specific stars, and where they would rise and set on the horizon of the ocean
- weather
- times of travel
- wildlife species (which congregate at particular positions)
- directions of swells on the ocean, and how the crew would feel their motion
- colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds would cluster at the locations of some islands
- angles for approaching harbors These, and outrigger canoe construction methods, were kept as guild secrets. Generally each island maintained a guild of navigators who had very high status, since in times of famine or difficulty, only they could trade for aid or evacuate people. The guild secrets might have been lost, had not one of the last living navigators trained a professional small boat captain so that he could write a book. The first settlers of the Hawaiian Islands were said to have used these navigation methods to sail to the Hawaiian Islands from the Marquesas Islands. In 1973, the Polynesian Voyaging Society was established in Hawaii to research Polynesian navigation methods. They built a replica of an ancient double-hulled canoe called the Hokule'a, whose crew, in 1976, successfully navigated the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Tahiti using no instruments.
- [http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/navigate/navigate.html Wayfinding Summary]
- [http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/L2wayfind.html Wayfinding Main Page]

Western navigation

Modern methods

There are several different branches of navigation, including but not limited to:
- celestial navigation - navigation by observation of the sun, moon and stars
- pilotage - using visible natural and man made features such as sea marks and beacons
- dead reckoning - using compass and log to monitor expected progress on a journey
- waypoint navigation - using electronic equipment such as radio navigation and satellite navigation system to follow a course to a waypoint
- position fixing - determining current position by visual and electronic means
- collision avoidance using radar Knowing the ship's current position is the main problem for all navigators. Early navigators used pilotage, relying on local knowledge of land marks and coastal features, forcing all ships to stay close to shore. The magnetic compass allowing a course to be maintained and estimates of the ship's location to be calculated. Nautical charts were developed to record new navigational and pilotage information for use by other navigators. The development of accurate systems for taking lines of position based on the measurement of stars and planets with the sextant allowed ships to navigate the open ocean without needing to see land marks. Later developments included the placing of lighthouses and buoys close to shore to act a marine signposts identifying ambiguous features, highlighting hazards and pointing to safe channels for ships approaching some part of a coast after a long sea voyage. The invention of the radio lead to radio beacons and radio direction finders providing accurate land-based fixes even hundreds of miles from shore. These were made obsolete by satellite navigation systems. Traditional maritime navigation with a compass uses multiple redundant sources of position information to locate the ship's position. A navigator uses the ship's last known position and dead reckoning, based on the ship's logged compass course and speed, to calculate the current position. If the set and drift, due to tide and wind, can be determined, an estimated position can also be calculated. Periodically, the navigator needs to confirm the accuracy of the dead reckoning or estimated position calculations using position fixing techniques. This is done by correctly identifying reference points and measuring their bearings from the ship. These lines of position can be plotted on a nautical chart, with the intersection being the ship's current location. Addition lines of position can be measured in order to validate the results taken against other reference points. This is known as a fix. Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the Sun, Moon and stars relative to the observer and a known location. Anciently the home port was used as the known location, currently the Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian is used as the known location for celestial charts. Navigators could determine their latitude by measuring the angular altitude of Polaris any time that it was visible (excepting, of course, in those southern latitudes from where it cannot be observed). Determining latitude by the sun was a little more difficult since the sun's altitude at noon during the year changes for a given location. Calculating the anticipated altitude of the sun for a given day and known position is done easily using Calculus. However, prior to the development and formulation of its key principles in the latter part of the 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, tables of the sun's altitude during the year for a known port were used. The sun's angle over the horizon at noon was measured, and compared to the known angle at the same date as the known port. Local noon is easily determined by recording periodic readings of the altitude of the sun. Since periodic readings of the altitude will plot a sine wave, the maximum reading is the one used for local noon. Longitude is calculated as a time difference between the same celestial event at different locations. Noon was an easy event to observe. Local noon is determined while shooting the azimuth as described above. The time of the maximum altitude is easily determined by interpolating between periodic readings. The time of noon at the known location is carried by the navigator on an accurate clock. Then the local time of local noon is observed by the navigator. The difference of longitude is determined knowing that the sun moves to the west at 15 degrees per hour. The need for accurate navigation led to the development of progressively more accurate clocks. Once accurate clocks were available, detailed tables for celestial bodies were created so that navigational activities could take place anytime during the day or night, rather than at noon. In modern celestial navigation, a nautical almanac and trigonometric sight-reduction tables permit navigators to measure the Sun, Moon, visible planets or any of 57 navigational stars at any time of day or night. From a single sight, a time within a second and an estimated position, a position can be determined within a third of a mile (500 m). Conceptually, the angle to the celestial object establishes a ring of possible positions on the surface of the Earth. A second sighting on a different object establishes an intersecting ring. Usually the navigator knows his position well enough to pick which of the two intersections is the current position. The math required for sight reduction is simple addition and subtraction, if sight-reduction tables are available. The numerous celestial objects permit navigators to shoot through holes in clouds. Most navigation is performed with the sun and moon. Accurately knowing the time of an observation is important. Time is measured with a chronometer, a quartz watch or a shortwave radio broadcast from an atomic clock. A quartz wristwatch normally keeps time within a half-second per day. If it is worn constantly, keeping it near body heat, its rate of drift can be measured with the radio, and by compensating for this drift, a navigator can keep time to better than a second per month. Traditionally, three chronometers are kept in gimbals in a dry room near the center of the ship, and used to set a watch for the actual sight, so that the chronometers themselves do not risk exposure to the elements. Winding the chronometers was a crucial duty of the navigator. The angle is measured with a special optical instrument called a "sextant." Sextants use two mirrors to cancel the relative motion of the sextant. During a sight, the user's view of the star and horizon remains steady as the boat rocks. An arm moves a split image of the star relative to the split image of the horizon. When the image of the star touches the horizon, the angle can be read from the sextant's scale. Some sextants create an artificial horizon by reflecting a bubble. Inexpensive plastic sextants are available, though they have less accuracy than the more expensive metal models. The LORAN system is based on measuring the phase shift of radio waves sent simultaneously from a master and slave station. Signals from these two point establish a hyperbolic curve for possible positions. A third source along with dead-reckoning will generally resolve to a single position. GPS uses 3D trilateration based on measuring the time-of-flight of radio waves using the well-known speed of light to measure distance from at least three satelites. This can be accomplished using low-cost quartz clocks because the satellites send time correction signals to the GPS receivers.

History

In the West, navigation was at first performed exclusively by dead-reckoning, the process of estimating one's present position based on the navigators' experience with wind, tide and currents. Most sailors have always been able find absolute north from the stars, which currently rotate around Polaris, or by using a dual sundial called a diptych. When combined with a plumb bob, some diptychs could also determine latitude. Basically, when the diptych's two sundials indicated the same time, the diptych was aligned to the current latitude and true north. diptych Another early invention was the compass rose, a cross or painted panel of wood oriented with the pole star or diptych. This was placed in front of the helmsman. Latitude was determined with a "cross staff" an instrument vaguely similar to a carpenter's angle with graduated marks on it. Most sailors could use this instrument to take sun sights, but master navigators knew that sightings of Polaris were far more accurate, because they were not subject to time-keeping errors involved in finding noon. Time-keeping was by precision hourglasses, filled and tested to 1/4 of an hour, turned by the helmsman, or a young boy brought for that purpose. The most important instrument was a navigators' diary, later called a rutter. These were often crucial trade secrets, because they enabled travel to lucrative ports. The above instruments were a powerful technology, and appear to have been the technique used by ancient Cretan bronze-age trading empire. Using these techniques, masters successfully sailed from the eastern Mediterranean to the south coast of the British Isles. Some time later, around 300, the magnetic compass was invented in China. This let masters continue sailing a course when the weather limited visibility of the sky. China Around 400, metallurgy allowed construction of astrolabes graduated in degrees, which replaced the wooden latitude instruments for night use. Diptychs remained in use during the day, until shadowing astrolabes were constructed. After Isaac Newton published the Principia, navigation was transformed. Starting in 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern latitude instruments and the best available clocks. In 1730 the sextant was invented and navigators rapidly replaced their astrolabes. A sextant uses mirrors to measure the altitude of celestial objects with regard to the horizon. Thus, its "pointer" is as long as the horizon is far away. This eliminates the "cosine" error of an astrolabe's short pointer. Modern sextants measure to 0.2 minutes of arc, an error that translates to a distance of about 0.2 nautical miles (400 m). At first, the best available "clocks" were the moons of Jupiter, and the calculated transits of selected stars by the moon. These methods were too complex to be used by any but skilled astronomers, but they sufficed to map most of the world. A number of scientific journals during this period were started especially to chronicle geography. Later, mechanical chronometers enabled navigation at sea and in the air using relatively unskilled procedures. In the late 19th century Nikola Tesla invented radio and direction-finding was quickly adapted to navigation. Up until 1960 it was commonplace for ships and aircraft to use radio direction-finding on commercial stations in order to locate islands and cities within the last several miles of error. Around 1960, LORAN was developed. This used time-of-flight of radio waves from antennas at known locations. It revolutionized navigation by permitting semiautomated equipment to locate geographic positions to less than a half mile (800 m). An analogous system for aircraft, VOR and DME, was developed around the same time. At about the same, TRANSIT, the first satellite-based navigation system was developed. It was the first electronic navigation system to provide global coverage. Other radionavigation systems include:
- Decca
- Omega, a longwave system developed by the United States Navy
- Alpha, a longwave system developed by the Soviet Union In 1974, the first GPS satellite was launched. The GPS system now permits accurate geographic location with an error of only a few metres, and precision timing to less than a microsecond. GLONASS is a positioning system launched by the Soviet Union. It relies on a slightly different geodesic model of the Earth. Galileo is a competing system, that will be placed into service by the European Union.

"Point" measure of direction

A "point" is defined as one eighth of a right angle, and therefore equals exactly 11.25 degrees. For example, a bearing of northwest by north differs by one point from a northwest bearing, and by a point from a north-northwest one.

External links

- [http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_6/chpt_2/index.html Navigation] - U.S Army Manual.
- [http://www.irbs.com/bowditch Bowditch Online] - complete online edition of Nathaniel Bowditch's American Practical Navigator Category:Navigation zh-min-nan:Tō-hâng ja:航海

United States Air Force

The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aviation branch of the United States armed forces. The USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947. Previously, the Army was responsible for non-naval military aviation under the US Army Air Forces. The USAF is the largest modern air force in the world, with over 7,000 aircraft in service, and air bases around the world. Since World War I, the USAF and its predecessors have taken part in military conflicts throughout the world. The USAF is widely considered to be the most technologically advanced in the world. The stated mission of the USAF is "deliver sovereign options for the defense of the United States of America and its global interests -- to fly and fight in Air, Space, and Cyberspace".[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123013440]

History

The USAF was first formed on September 18, 1947, following the passing of the National Security Act. The Act created the Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly created Air Force. Prior to 1947, military aviation was the responsibility of the Army, while the Navy maintained a fleet air arm on its fleet of aircraft carriers. The Army branch was known as the US Army Air Corps and later the US Army Air Force.

Formation

The US military first began to experiment with military aviation in December 1906, when ‘’Army Specification #486’’ was authorized, which looked the creation of aircraft for military usage. In 1908, the Wright Brothers signed a contract with the Army to bolster the operations. The first air divisions were created following the establishment of an Aviation Section of the US Army Signal Corps.

World War I

In 1917, upon the United States' entry into World War I, the U.S. Army Air Service was formed as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Major General Mason Patrick commanded the AEF Air Forces; his deputy was Major General Billy Mitchell. The Air Service provided tactical support for the U.S. Army, especially during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne offensives. Among the aces of the Air Service were Captain Eddie Rickenbacker and Frank Luke. In 1926 the Air Service was reorganized as a branch of the Army and became the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC). During this period, the USAAC began experimenting with new techniques, including air-to-air refueling and the development of the B-9 and the Martin B-10, the first all-metal monoplane bomber, and new fighters. In 1937, the B-17 Flying Fortress made its first appearance. In a spectacular feat of navigation, three B-17s intercepted the Italian passenger liner Rex at sea.

World War II

Italian passenger liner Rex.]] World War II led to further changes. In 1941, the Army Air Corps became the U.S. Army Air Force and the GHQ Air Force was redesignated the Air Force Combat Command. In the major military reorganization effective March 9, 1942, the newly designated United States Army Air Forces gained equal voice with the Army and Navy. In Europe, the USAAF began daylight bombing operations, over objections of the Royal Air Force planners on the Combined Chiefs of Staff. The US strategy involved flying bombers together, relying on the defensive firepower of a close formation. The tactic was only successful in part. American fliers took tremendous casualties during raids on the oil refineries of Ploiesti, Romania and the ball-bearing factories at Schweinfurt and Regensburg, Germany. When the P-51 Mustang, with its increased range, was introduced to combat, American combat losses dropped, and operations during Big Week in late winter of 1944 caused the Luftwaffe to lose experienced pilots. In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the USAAF used the B-29 Superfortress to launch attacks on the Japanese mainland from China. One of the major logistical efforts of the war, "flying the Hump" over the Himalayas, took place. To carry both a bomb load and fuel and to bomb at high altitude through the jet stream affected the B-29's range. As soon as airbases on Saipan were captured in 1944, General Curtis LeMay changed strategy from high-level precision bombings to low-level incendiary bombings, aimed at destroying the distributed network of Japanese industrial manufacturing. Many Japanese cities suffered extensive damage. Tokyo suffered a firestorm in which over 100,000 persons died. The B-29 was also used to drop one primitive nuclear weapon on each of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in August 1945.

Post War

The United States Department of the Air Force was created when President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947. It became effective September 18, 1947, when Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the oath of office to the first secretary of the Air Force, Stuart Symington. The Korean War saw the Far Eastern Air Force losing its main airbase in Kimpo, South Korea, and forced to provide close air support to the defenders of the Pusan pocket from bases in Japan. However, General Douglas B. MacArthur's landing at Inchon in September 1950 enabled the FEAF to return to Kimpo and other bases, from which they supported MacArthur's drive to the Korean-Chinese border. When the Chinese People's Liberation Army intervened in December, 1950, the USAF provided tactical air support. The introduction of the Soviet-made MiG-15 caused problems for the B-29s used to bomb North Korea, but the USAF countered the MiGs with the F-86 Sabre.

Vietnam War

The USAF were heavily deployed during the Vietnam War. The first bombing raids against North Vietnam occurred in 1965 following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident in 1964. Codenamed, Operation Rolling Thunder, the purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, to destroy industrial bases and air defences, and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The USAF was to drop more bombs during this campaign than all the bombs dropped during World War II. The bombing campaign lasted until 1972. The bombing of villages using napalm, and the high civilian causalities in the North was controversial and led to massive anti-American protests throughout the world. Nevertheless, the operation was militarily effective, stopping a major North Vietnamese Army offensive in 1972.

Cold War

Following the end of World War II, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to sour, and the period in history known as the Cold War began. This period saw the United States enter a arms race with the Soviet Union, and competition to increase influence throughout the world. In response the United States expanded its military presence throughout the world. The USAF opened air bases throughout Europe, and later in Japan and South Korea. The United States also built air bases on the British overseas territories of British Indian Ocean Territory and Ascension Island in the South Atlantic. The first test for the USAF during the Cold War occurred in 1948 when Communist authorities in Eastern Germany cut off road and air transportation to West Berlin. The USAF, along with the Royal Air Force, supplied the city during the Berlin airlift, using C-121 Constellation and the C-54 Skymaster. The efforts of the USAF and RAF saved the city from starvation and forced the Soviets to back down in their blockade when they realised it wasn't working.

Bosnia and Kosovo

The USAF led NATO action in Bosnia in 1994 with air strikes against the Bosnian Serb. This was the first time that USAF aircraft took part in military action as part of a NATO mission. The USAF led the strike forces as the only NATO air force with the capability to launch significant air strikes over a long period of time. Later the USAF led NATO air strikes against Serbia during the Kosovo War. The forces were later criticised for attacking civilian targets in Belgrade, including a strike on the civilian television station, and a later attack which destroyed the Chinese Embassy.

Iraq and Afghanistan

Belgrade The USAF provided the bulk of the Allied air power during the first Gulf War in 1991. This was the first war that the F-117 Nighthawk was deployed. The Stealth fighter's capabilities were shown on the first night of the air war when they were able to bomb central Baghdad and avoid the Iraqi's sophisticated anti-aircraft defences. The USAF later patrolled the skies of Northern and Southern Iraq after the war to protect minorities persecuted by the Iraqi regime under Saddam Hussein. In 2001, the USAF was deployed against the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Operating from Diego Garcia, B-52 Stratofortress attacked Taliban positions, and deploying daisy cutter bombs for the first time since the Vietnam War. During this conflict the USAF opened up bases in Central Asia for the first time. The USAF was more recently deployed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Following the defeat of Saddam Hussein’s regime, the USAF took over Baghdad International Airport as a base. USAF aircraft are used to provide support to Coalition and Iraqi forces in major operations to eliminate insurgent centers of activity and supply in north and west Iraq.

Organization

The Department of the Air Force consists of the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF), the Air Staff, and field units.

SECAF

The Office of the SECAF includes the Secretary, Under Secretary, Assistant Secretaries, General Counsel, The Inspector General, Air Reserve Forces Policy Committee, and other offices and positions established by law or the SECAF. The Office of the SECAF has responsibility for acquisition and auditing, comptroller issues (including financial management), inspector general matters, legislative affairs, and public affairs. In 2004 the Secretary of the Air Force was Dr. James G. Roche who stepped down as SECAF on January 20th, 2005. In 2005 the Secretary of the Air Force is Michael Wynne.

Air Staff

Michael Wynne The Air Staff primarily consists of military advisors to the CSAF and the SECAF. This includes the Chief of Staff, Vice Chief of Staff, and Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (CMSAF), four deputy chiefs of staff (DCS), the US Air Force Surgeon General, The Judge Advocate General, the Chief of the Air Force Reserve, and additional military and civilian personnel as the SECAF deems necessary. In 2005 the Chief of Staff of the Air Force was General (Gen) T. Michael Moseley. The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force is the senior enlisted person in the Air Force. In 2004 the position was held by Chief Master Sergeant (CMSgt) Gerald R. Murray.

Field Units

The Department of the Air Force field units are MAJCOMs, field operating agencies (FOA), and direct reporting units (DRU).

Major commands (MAJCOMs)

The USAF is organized on a functional basis in the United States and a geographical basis overseas. A major command (MAJCOM) represents a major Air Force subdivision having a specific portion of the Air Force mission. Each MAJCOM is directly subordinate to HQ USAF. MAJCOMs are interrelated and complementary, providing offensive, defensive, and support elements. An operational command consists (in whole or in part) of strategic, tactical, space, or defense forces; or of flying forces that directly support such forces. A support command may provide supplies, weapon systems, support systems, operational support equipment, combat material, maintenance, surface transportation, education and training, or special services and other supported organizations. The USAF is organized into nine MAJCOMS, 7 Functional and 2 Geographic, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force (HQ USAF):

Numbered Air Forces (NAF)

See main article: List of Numbered Air Forces The NAF is a level of command directly under a MAJCOM (Major Command). NAFs are tactical echelons that provide operational leadership and supervision. They are not management headquarters and do not have complete functional staffs. Many NAFs are responsible for MAJCOM operations in a specific geographic region or theater of operations. A NAF is assigned subordinate units, such as wings, groups, and squadrons.

Wings

See main article: List of Wings. The wing is a level of command below the NAF. A wing has approximately 1,000 to 5,000 personnel and a distinct mission with significant scope. It is responsible for maintaining the installation and may have several squadrons in more than one dependent group. A wing may be an operational wing, an air base wing, or a specialized mission wing.

Operational Wing

An operational wing is one that has an operations group and related operational mission activity assigned to it. When an operational wing performs the primary mission of the base, it usually maintains and operates the base. In addition, an operational wing is capable of self-support in functional areas like maintenance, supply, and munitions, as needed. When an operational wing is a tenant organization, the host command provides it with varying degrees of base and logistics support.

Air Base Wing

Some bases which do not have operational wings or are too large or diverse for one wing will have an Air Base Wing (ABW). The ABW performs a support function rather than an operational mission. It maintains and operates a base. An air base wing often provides functional support to a MAJCOM headquarters. Wings are composed of several groups with different functional responsibilities. Groups are composed of several squadrons, each of which has one major responsibility or flying one type of aircraft. Squadrons are composed of two or more flights.

Operational Organization

Air Base Wing The above organizational structure is responsible for the peacetime Organization, Equipping, and Training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the National Command Authority directs a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their peacetime alignment to a Combatant Commander (COCOM).

Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force (ASETF)

CHOPPED units are referred to as "forces". The top-level structure of these forces is the Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force (ASETF). The ASETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a COCOM for the employment of Air Power. Each COCOM is supported by a standing Warfighting Headquarters (WFHQ) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of COCOM requirements. Each WFHQ consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR), and AFFOR staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the WFHQ may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC.

Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR)

The COMAFFOR is the senior Air Force officer responsible for the employment of Air Power is support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.

Air Operations Center (AOC)

The AOC is the COMAFFOR's Command and Control (C²) center. This center is responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.

Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons

The ASETF generates air power to support COCOM objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.

Aircraft

Main article: List of military aircraft of the United States The United States Air Force has roughly over 7,500 Aircraft commissioned as of 2004.[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force#sources (1)] It currently employs a designation and naming system to identify all aircraft type with distinct names. Until 1962, both the Army and Air Force maintained one system, while the US Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations.

Gallery of images

This is a gallery of the most well known USAF aircraft Image:Usaf.b52.750pix.jpg|B-52 Stratofortress Image:B1s.jpg|B-1 Lancer Image:Usaf.b2.spirit.750pix.jpg|B-2 Spirit ("Stealth Bomber") Image:Thunderbolt.a10.fairford.arp.jpg|A-10 Thunderbolt II ("Warthog") Image:F-16 CJ Fighting Falcon.jpg|F-16 Fighting Falcon Image:F-117 Nighthawk flight.jpg|F-117 Nighthawk ("Stealth Fighter") Image:F-15 takeoff.jpg|F-15 Eagle Image:Usaf.c130.750pix.jpg|C-130 Hercules

Uniform

The current U.S. Air Force uniform, adopted in 1993 and standardized in 1995, consists of a three-button, pocketless coat, similar to that of a men's "sport jacket" (with silver "U.S." pins on the lapels), matching trousers, and either a service cap or garrison cap, all in "Air Force Blue." This is worn with a light blue shirt and necktie in the same color as the coat and trousers. Enlisted members wear sleeve insignia on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the coat, and Air Force Blue slide-on loops on the shirt. Air Force personnel assigned to honor guard duties wear, for dress occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform, but with silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of medals, sword belt, and a silver shoulder cord. Between 1993 and 1995, officers had Navy/Coast Guard-style rank rings on the coat, but this was replaced with sewn-on epaulets with the rank insignia, with "welts" in the same color as the coat being worn on the sleeves, a distinctive item adopted from the U.S. Army. Prior to 1993, all Air Force personnel wore Air Force Blue uniforms nearly identical in appearance to that of the U.S. Army, which in fact, influence the current uniform regulations of the Army when it replaced its WWII/Korean-era olive drab uniforms with the modern-day "Army Green" uniforms of the Cold War era. For combat and work duty, ground crews wear standard battle dress uniform, which are currently being phased out in favor of an Air Force version of the Marine's MARPAT uniform, while pilots and air crews wear olive green or tan one-piece flight suits made of nomex for fire protection. Women's uniforms, which has changed little since its introduction in the late 1950's, generally is identical in appearance to that of the uniforms worn by women officers in the U.S. Army.

Common badges

:See also: Military badges of the United States
- Pilot Badge
- Navigator Badge
- Aircrew Badge
- Flight Surgeon Badge
- Occupational Badge
- Medical Badge
- Religious Pin
- Security Police badge

Rank Structure

Trivia

The US Air Force conducted the Project Blue Book investigation into UFOs and alien encounters.See UFO for data on the US Air Force Project Blue Book. Recently, given the USAF's attention to space exploration, rumors have stirred of a possible name change for the entire service, to United States Aerospace Force. However, this has yet to receive serious attention.

Sources

[http://www.britannica.com 2004 Encyclopædia Britannica]

External links

- [http://www.af.mil/ Official USAF website]
- [http://www.airforce.com Official USAF Recruiting site]
- [http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/ USAF History Support Office]
- [http://www.au.af.mil/au/afhra/ Air Force Historical Research Agency]
- [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/ National Museum of the United States Air Force]
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/afb.htm US military air bases] by GlobalSecurity.org
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf/ USAF organization and units] by GlobalSecurity.org
- [http://www.scramble.nl/usaf.htm USAF Order of Battle] at Scramble
- [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1411636384/qid=1123217876/sr=8-1/ref=pd_bbs_sbs_1/002-7742000-2043231?v=glance&s=books&n=507846 United States Air Force: History and Guide to Resources]
- Category:Air forces ja:アメリカ空軍

Commissioned Officer

In military organizations, an officer is a member of the service who holds a position of responsibility. Commissioned officers derive authority directly from a sovereign power and, as such, hold a commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a specific office or position. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons in a military able to exercise command (according to the most technical definition of the word) over a military unit. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, although the use of the word command to describe any use of authority is widespread and often official. Having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. In such case, those persons holding offices of responsibility within the organization are deemed to be the officers, and the presence of these officers connotes a level of organization sufficient to designate a group as being combatant.

Commissioned officers

Commissioned officers generally receive training as leadership and management generalists, in addition to training relating to their specific trade or function in the military. Most developed nations have set the goal of having their officer corps university-educated, though exceptions exist to accommodate officers who have risen from the non-commissioned ranks. By contrast, non-commissioned members tend to receive relatively little training prior to the commencement of their active service in the military and much of their training is done on-the-job. Education standards for non-commissioned members are typically lower than for officers (with the exception of highly technical trades) and members only receive leadership training as they are promoted to positions of responsibility. In the past (and in some countries today, to a lesser extent) non-commissioned members were almost exclusively conscripts, whereas officers were volunteers.

Subordinate officers

In many armed forces, a further category of officers under training known as subordinate officers may also exist. Subordinate officers, though not yet commissioned, are accorded many of the privileges of commissioned officers.

Non-commissioned and warrant officers

A non-commissioned officer is a military member holding a position of authority who has obtained it by promotion from within the enlisted ranks. They will have received some leadership training, but their function is to serve as leaders within their area of trade speciality and they are not generally considered management generalists. In some branches of some militaries there exists a third grade of officer known as a Warrant Officer. A Warrant Officer may be simply a high-ranking non-commissioned officer whose position has been affirmed by warrant from the bureaucracy directing the force, or may be a separate grade altogether, sometimes actually holding a commission (known as a "Commissioned Warrant Officer").

Officer ranks and accommodation

Officers, non-commissioned officers, and junior ranks in almost every country of the world are segregated along the lines of the Prussian system of messing, where eating facilities, accommodation, and social facilities are kept separate to ensure relations between various ranks stay strictly professional.

External links

- [http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/insignias/officers.html U.S. DoD Officer Rank Insignia]
- ja:士官

Electronic warfare

Electronic warfare (EW) has three main components:
- Electronic Attack (EA)
This is the active use of the electromagnetic spectrum to deny its use by an adversary. Most EA activity is in the form of jamming. An older term for EA is Electronic countermeasures (ECM).
- Electronic Protect (EP)
This includes all activities related to making enemy EA activities less successful. Active EP includes technical modifications to radio equipment (such as frequency-hopping spread spectrum), while passive EP includes education of operators (enforcing strict discipline) and modified battlefield tactics. Older terms for EP are Electronic protective measures (EPM) and Electronic Counter Counter Measures (ECCM). Electronic protective measures
- Electronic Support (ES)
This is the passive use of the electromagnetic spectrum to gain intelligence about other parties on the battlefield. This intelligence might be used directly as fire missions for artillery or air strike orders, or as the basis of EA/EP actions. Older term for ES is Electronic warfare support measures (ESM). EA and active EP can be detected by an adversary due to their active transmissions. ES, however, can be conducted without the enemy ever knowing it. Its strategic counterpart, SIGINT is continuously performed by most of the world's countries in order to gain intelligence about potential enemies' electronic equipment and tactics.

References

- [http://www.sci.fi/~fta/storm-01.htm Electronic Warfare in Operation Desert Storm]
- [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/edperry/ewtutor1.htm EW Tutorial]
- [http://www.crows.org Association of Old Crows] Category:Electronics Category:Warfare
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United States Marine Corps

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the U.S. military. While concerned almost exclusively with shipboard security service and amphibious warfare in its formative years, the Marine Corps has evolved to fill a unique, multi-purpose role within the modern United States military. The Marine Corps is the second smallest of the five branches (Navy, Marine Corps, Army, Air Force, Coast Guard) of the U.S. military, with 172,000 active and 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2005. Only the United States Coast Guard, part of the Department of Homeland Security, is smaller. In absolute terms, the US Marine Corps is nonetheless larger than the armed forces of many major nations; it is larger than the British Army, for example.

Mission

British Army The Marine Corps serves as a versatile combat element, and is adapted to a wide variety of combat operations. The Marine Corps was initially composed of infantry combat forces serving aboard naval vessels, responsible for security of the ship, its captain and officers, offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions, by acting as sharpshooters, and carrying out amphibious assaults. The Marines fully developed and used the tactics of amphibious assault in World War II, most notably in the Pacific Island Campaign. Since its creation in 1775, the Corps' role has expanded significantly. The Marines have a unique mission statement, and, alone among the branches of the U.S. armed forces, "shall, at any time, be liable to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the United States, on the seacoast, or any other duty on shore, as the President, at his discretion, shall direct." In this special capacity, charged with carrying out duties given to them directly by the President of the United States, the Marine Corps serves as an all-purpose, fast-response task force, capable of quick action in areas requiring emergency intervention. The Marine Corps possesses organic ground and air combat elements, and relies upon the US Navy to provide sea combat elements to fulfill its mission as "America's 9-1-1 Force". Marine combat forces are largely contained in three Marine Expeditionary Forces, or "MEF's". The 1st MEF is based out of Camp Pendleton, California, the 2nd out of Camp LeJeune, North Carolina, while the third is based on Okinawa, Japan. Within the MEF's are the individual Marine Divisions (MARDIVS), Force Service Support Groups (FSSG's) and Marine Aircraft Wings (MAWs). Force Reconnaissance companies are composed of Marines specially trained in covert insertion, reconnaissance, and surveillance tactics, and some have even received special operations training. The "Recon Marines" basic mission is to scout out the enemy and report what they find. Marine tactics and doctrine tends to emphasize aggressiveness and the offensive, compared to Army tactics for similar units. The Marines have been central in developing groundbreaking tactics for maneuver warfare; they can be credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and modern amphibious assault. The Marines also maintain an operational and training culture dedicated to emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines receive training first and foremost as basic riflemen, and thus the Marine Corps at heart functions culturally as an infantry corps. The Marine Corps is famous for the saying "Every Marine is a rifleman." The maneuver warfare doctrine upon which the Corps is organized and the chaotic nature of the operations which the Corps has traditionally taken on causes it to place a premium on decentralized decision-making and the individual abilities of leaders at all levels. As a result, a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected of even junior Marines, particularly the NCO's (Corporals and Sergeants) regarding the accomplishment of their particular missions, at least compared to many other military organizations. The Marine Corps has a strong tendency towards pushing authority and responsibility downward throughout its organization onto Marines to a greater degree than their counterparts in rank would have in other services. While the Marine Corps does not necessarily fill unique combat roles, only when combined do the US Army, Navy, and US Air Force overlap every area that the Marine Corps covers. As a force, the Marines consistently use all essential elements of combat (air, ground, sea) together. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater-Nichols Act has improved interservice coordination between the larger services, the Marine Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a special ability to respond to flexibility and urgency requirements. The Marines argue that they do not and should not take the place of the other services, any more than an ambulance takes the place of a hospital. Nonetheless, when a pressing emergency develops, the Marines essentially act as a stopgap, to get into and hold an area until the larger machinery can be mobilized. The opinions of other military men and politicians have, at times, differed, and President Harry S. Truman considered abolishing the Corps as part of the 1948 reorganization of the military. As Truman said, "The only propaganda machine that rivals that of Stalin is that of the United States Marine Corps." Truman, a former U.S. Army artillery captain in WWI, still resented the high degrees of praise bestowed the Marines after the First World War mostly at the expense of Army units. He also believed that the Army proved that they could do amphibious landings with the actions in North Africa, Italy and Normandy so there was no need for a separate service to fulfill this function. An example of this coordinated, time-sensitive capability could be seen in 1990, when the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit (22nd MEU) conducted Operation Sharp Edge, a noncombatant evacuation operation, or NEO, in the west African city of Monrovia, Liberia. Liberia suffered from civil war at the time, and civilian citizens of the United States and other countries could not leave via conventional means. Sharp Edge ended in success. Only one reconnaissance team came under fire, with no casualties incurred on either side, and the Marines evacuated several hundred civilians within hours to U.S. Navy vessels waiting offshore.

Creation and history

The Marine Corps, originally created as the "Continental Marines" during the American Revolutionary War, was formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, and first recruited at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by Samuel Nicholas. They served as landing troops for the recently created Continental Navy. The Continental Marines were disbanded at the end of the war in April 1783 but re-formed on July 11 1798. Despite the gap, Marines worldwide celebrate November 10 as the Marine Corps Birthday. Historically, the United States Marine Corps has achieved fame in several campaigns, as referenced in the first line of the Marines' Hymn: "From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli". In the early 19th century, First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led a group of eight Marines and 300 Arab and European mercenaries in capturing Tripoli. Separately, the Marines took part in the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) and assaulted the Castillo de Chapultepec, or the Chapultepec Palace, which overlooked Mexico City. The Marines were placed on guard duty at the Mexican Presidential Palace, "The Halls of Montezuma". Mexico City)
U.S. Marines raise the American Flag on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945]] After these early 19th-century engagements, the Marine Corps occupied a small role in American military history. They saw little significant action in the American Civil War, but later become prominent due to their deployment in small wars around the world. During the latter half of the 19th century, the Marines saw action in Korea, Cuba, the Philippines, and China. During the years before and after World War I, the Marines saw action throughout the Caribbean in places such as Haiti and Nicaragua. These actions became known as "The Banana Wars", and the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual. In World War I, the battle-tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the U.S. entry into the conflict, and at the Battle of Belleau Wood, Marine units were in the front, earning the Marines a reputation as the "First to Fight". This battle marked the creation of the Marines' reputation in modern history. Rallying under the battle cries of "Retreat? Hell, we just got here!" (Captain Lloyd Williams) and "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever?" (then Gunnery Sergeant, later Sergeant Major Dan Daly, two time Medal of Honor recipient), the Marines drove German forces from the area. Captured prisoners and German letters referred to the Marines in the battle as "Teufelshunden", literally, "Devil Dogs", a nickname Marines proudly hold to this day. The French government renamed Belleau Wood "Bois de la Brigade de Marine", or "Wood of the Marine Brigade," and decorated both the 5th and 6th Regiments with the Crois de Guerre. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, then Secretary of the Navy, stated that enlisted Marines would henceforth wear the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor on their uniform collar. In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War, and the war saw the expansion of the Corps from two brigades to two corps with six divisions and five air wings with 132 squadrons. The battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between US Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army. The secrecy afforded their communications by the now-famous Navajo code talkers program, is widely seen as having contributed significantly to their success. During the Battle of Iwo Jima, Raising of the Flag on Iwo Jima, a famous photograph of five Marines and one Navy corpsman raising the US flag on Mt. Suribachi, was taken. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who had come ashore earlier that day to observe the progress of the troops, said of the flag raising on Iwo Jima, "...the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next five hundred years". The acts of the Marines during the war added to their already significant popular reputation, and the USMC War Memorial in Arlington, VA was dedicated in 1954. The Korean War saw the Marines fighting in the Provisional Marine Brigade at the Pusan Perimeter, then landing at Inchon and assaulting north into North Korea along with the Army. As U.S. forces approached the Yalu River, the People's Republic of China, fearing an incursion by American forces, sent armies over the river to engage American forces within Korea. People's Republic of China At the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, the First Marine Division, vastly outnumbered but vastly better equipped and trained, fought Chinese forces. Although surrounded, the Marines regrouped, assaulted the Chinese, and inflicted heavy casualties during their fighting withdrawal to the coast. The Marines also played an important role in the Vietnam War at battles such as Da Nang, Hué City, and Khe Sanh. Marines were among the first troops deployed to Vietnam, as well as the last to leave during the evacuation of the American embassy in Saigon. After Vietnam, Marines served in a number of important events and places. On October 23, 1983, a Marine barracks in Lebanon was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from Lebanon. Marines were also responsible for liberating Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, as the Army made an attack to the west directly into Iraq. In 1995, Marines performed a successful mission in Bosnia, rescuing Captain Scott O'Grady, a downed Air Force fighter pilot, in what is called a TRAP (Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel). Most recently, the Marines served prominently in the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent occupation, where a light, mobile force was and is especially needed. Perhaps most notably, the Marines spearheaded both assaults on the city of Fallujah in April and November 2004.

Reputation of the Marine Corps

The Marine Corps has a widely-held reputation as a fierce and effective fighting force and the Marines take pride in their gung-ho attitude, they are indoctrinated with a strong belief in their chain of command and the importance of esprit de corps, a spirit of enthusiasm and pride in themselves and the Corps. The Marine Corps is popularly seen as possessing a degree of fame and infamy among the enemies they fight, and examples of this effect are readily seized upon and publicized by the Corps and its supporters. During the 1991 Gulf War, after Iraqi forces had already been bloodied by the Corps in the first ground engagement of the war at Khafji, U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf used a public demonstration of a Marine landing on Kuwait and the Iraqi port of Umm Qasr to pin down Iraqi units, while the Army then executed a sweep from the West. Most recently, Iraqis in the Persian Gulf War and 2003 invasion of Iraq were said to have taken special note of Marine Cobra helicopters and the distinctive look of the Marine combat uniform. The Marines have taken steps to build on this psychological advantage by, for instance, developing a new utility uniform that makes Marines easier to distinguish from other US servicemen. See the [http://www.marcorsyscom.usmc.mil/sites/mcub/PAGES/uniform_plates.htm Web site of the Permanent Marine Corps Uniform Board (PMCUB)] for illustrations of the various Marine uniforms. 2003 invasion of Iraq The Marine Corps has also recently initiated an internally designed martial arts program, an idea borrowed from the South Korean Marines, who train in martial arts and who, during the Vietnam War, were widely rumored to all be black belts. Due to an expectation that urban and police-type peacekeeping missions will become more common in the 21st century, which will place Marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, it is expected that the Marines will benefit from having a larger and more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is also a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the "warrior culture" within Marines. While the reputation of the Marine Corps has remained largely positive in recent years, at least within the United States, the Corps has still struggled with occasional negative press and perceptions. In many conflicts, members of the other armed forces of the United States have complained that the Marine Corps often emphasizes its prowess at the expense of the reputation of Army or Navy units which are nearby. An example occurred at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir in the Korean War, when a Marine officer (probably Lt. General Lewis "Chesty" Puller) disparaged the undermanned Army infantry regiment which took the initial Chinese attack. Additionally, the aggressive tradition of the Marine Corps, and the public perception of the Corps' as both an agressive organization and an elite force within the US military, has at times led to public relations issues surrounding accusations of bullying, harrassment and hazing since WWII. In its post-World War II history, the Marine Corps reputation has been damaged several times. The first major event was the Ribbon Creek Incident on April 8, 1956, when the junior Drill Instructor, Staff Sergeant Matthew Mckeon, led his assigned platoon into a tidal stream on Parris Island in the purpose of disciplining his platoon, while violating several basic Marine and training regulations. 6 recruits died. SSgt McKeon was court-martialed, and, with significant media coverage, an extensive Congressional investigation took place. See also: The Ribbon Creek incident In recent years, following incidents of hazing in various Marine Corps units, such as ANGLICO and the Silent Drill Platoon; incidents involving civilians in Status of Forces Agreement countries; and other public relations issues that could cast the Corps into disrepute, increasingly further-reaching measures have been taken to prevent such incidents and protect the public image of the Marine Corps. Standing orders prohibit hazing and inititation rituals of any kind, at least officially. Marines on Okinawa and at other posts are regularly subject to restrictions and curfews, particularly following incidents between Marines and civilians. Marines today are also discouraged from publicly disparaging other branches of service. These and other measures reflect a realization that the Marine Corps is generally more visible and higher profile than the other branches of service in all that it does and that it relies upon the goodwill of the American people and Congress to a much greater degree for its survival.

Organization

Air-ground task forces

The Marine Corps organization is flexible, and task forces can be formed of any size. Modern deployed Marine units are based upon the doctrine of the Marine air-ground task force, or MAGTF. A MAGTF can generally be of any of three sizes, based upon the amount of force required in the given situation; however, all MAGTFs have a similar organization. A MAGTF is comprised of four elements: the command element (CE), the ground combat element (GCE), the air combat element (ACE) and the combat service support element (CSSE).
- Command element — A headquarters unit that directs the other elements
- Ground combat element — Usually infantry, supported by armor (tanks), and artillery, but including special units such as scouts or Force Reconnaissance, snipers and forward air controllers
- Air combat element — The total airpower strength of the MAGTF, the ACE includes all aerial vehicles (both fixed wing and helicopter), their pilots and maintenance personnel and those units necessary for aviation command and control.
- Combat service support element — This element includes all of the support units for the MAGTF: communications, combat engineers, motor transport, medical and supply units, and certain specialized groups such as air delivery and landing support teams The smallest type of MAGTF is the Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU). The MEU is trained to operated as an independent force or as part of a Joint Task Force. Four elements make up a Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable): The Command Element is the standing headquarters for the MEU, usually headed by a Colonel (O-6). The Ground Combat Element is a Battalion Landing Team; an infantry battalion reinforced with tanks, artillery, engineers, amphibious vehicles, light armored vehicles, and other ground combat assets. The Aviation Combat Element is made up of a composite squadron of both fixed and rotary-wing aircraft. The Combat Service Support Element consists of a MEU Service Support Group which handles the logistics and administration needs of the MEU. The specific makeup of the MEU can be customized based upon the task at hand; additional artillery, armor, or air units can be attached, including squadrons of F/A-18 Hornet and Harrier jets. There are usually three MEUs assigned to each of the U.S. Navy Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, with another MEU based on Okinawa. While one MEU is on deployment, one MEU is training to deploy and one is standing down, resting its Marines, and refitting. Each MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations. A Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB) is larger than a MEU, and is based upon a Marine regiment, with larger air and support contingents. A Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), as deployed in Iraq in 2003, comprises a Marine division with an artillery regiment, several tank battalions, several LAV battalions, as well as an air wing. The I Marine Expeditionary Force as deployed in the Persian Gulf War ultimately consisted of the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions as well as considerable Marine air and support units.

Ground Combat Elements

Here is the typical organization for Marine Corps infantry units, from smallest to largest: (Note that the organization and weapons below are from Marine Corps Table of Organization and Equipment standard. Any Marine Corps unit might be organized differently under their own SOP and specialized units, such as Force Reconnaissance, could certainly carry different weapons):
- fire team: four Marines; team leader (M16A4 with M203 attachment), automatic rifleman (M249), assistant automatic rifleman(M16A4), and rifleman (M16A4).
- squad: three fire teams and a corporal or sergeant as squad leader
- platoon
- rifle platoon: three squads, a Navy corpsman, a platoon sergeant (staff sergeant), and a lieutenant as platoon commander
- weapons platoon: a 60mm mortar section, an assault section, a medium machine gun section (using M240G 7.62mm machine guns), a Navy corpsman, a platoon sergeant (gunnery sergeant), and a lieutenant as platoon commander
- company
- rifle company: three rifle platoons, a weapons platoon, a Navy corpsman, a administrative clerk, a police sergeant (corporal or sergeant), a training NCO, a company gunnery sergeant, first sergeant, a first lieutenant as executive officer, and captain as commander
- weapons company: an 81mm mortar platoon, an anti-armor platoon, and a heavy machine gun platoon
- headquarters and support company:
- battalion: three or four companies, commanded by a lieutenant colonel
- regiment: three or four battalions, commanded by a colonel
- brigade: less common in the Marine Corps, but typically made up of one or more regiments and commanded by a brigadier general
- division: three or four regiments, officers and others, commanded by a major general Battalions and larger units have a sergeant major, and an executive officer as second in command, plus officers and others for: Administration (S-1), Intelligence (S-2), Operations (S-3), Logistics (S-4), Civil Affairs [wartime only] (S-5), and Communications (S-6). Units of batallion size or larger may be reinforced by the addition of supporting tank or artillery units, as in the Battalion Landing Teams comprising the GCEs of Marine Expeditionary Units. As of 2004, there are four Marine divisions:
- the First in Camp Pendleton, California;
- the Second in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina;
- the Third in Camp Smedley Butler in Okinawa, Japan; and
- the Fourth is a reserve unit headquarted in New Orleans, Louisiana, with units scattered throughout the continental United States. In World War II, two more Marine Divisions were formed: the Fifth and Sixth, which fought in the Pacific War. These divisions were disbanded after the end of the war.

Aviation

Typical aviation units are squadron, group and wing. There are four Marine aircraft wings:
- the 1st MAW in Okinawa, Japan;
- the 2d MAW in Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina;
- the 3d MAW at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, California; and
- the 4th MAW, a reserve unit headquartered in New Orleans.

Logistics Groups

There are also four Marine Logistics Group
- the First in Camp Pendleton, California;
- the Second in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina;
- the Third in Okinawa, Japan;
- and the Fourth, a reserve unit, headquartered in New Orleans.

Participation in Joint Operations

The MAGTF structure reflects a strong tradition in the Corps towards self-sufficiency and a committment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, time-sensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as well has led to a wariness towards relying too much on its sister services. During WWII, Marines at times viewed the support which they received from the Navy during the Pacific island battles as insufficient. During most of the Korean War, the Corps was forced to fight as "leg infantry" under Army command, and their unique potential advantage as an amphibious force operating in a penninsular country was ignored. In recent years, the Corps has come to cooperate more and more closely with the other service branches under the Joint Command Structure. An example of this is the recent establishment of Marine Special Operations Command under the joint U.S. Special Operations Command (SOCOM), a move which the Corps eschewed when SOCOM was founded in 1986.

Ranks

This list is in ascending order. It includes pay grades and abbreviations in the style used by the Marine Corps. Enlisted:
- E-1, Private, Pvt
- E-2, Private First Class, PFC
- E-3, Lance Corporal, LCpl
- Noncommissioned Officers, or NCOs:
- E-4, Corporal, Cpl
- E-5, Sergeant, Sgt
- Staff Noncommissioned Officers, or SNCOs:
- E-6, Staff Sergeant, SSgt
- E-7, Gunnery Sergeant, GySgt
- E-8
- Master Sergeant, MSgt
- First Sergeant, 1stSgt
- E-9
- Master Gunnery Sergeant, MGySgt
- Sergeant Major, SgtMaj
- Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, SgtMajMC NOTE 1: The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two ranks per pay grade, each with different responsibilities. Gunnery Sergeants indicate on their annual evaluations, called "fitness reports", or "fitreps" for short, their preferred promotional track: Master Sergeant or First Sergeant. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command-oriented, with Marines of these ranks serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matter of discipline, administration and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. First Sergeants typically serve as the senior enlisted Marine in a company, battery or other unit at similar echelon, while Sergeants Major serve the same role in battalions, squadrons or larger units. NOTE 2: The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Some enlisted ranks have commonly used nicknames, though they are not official and technically improper. For instance, a Master Sergeant, is commonly called "Top". A Gunnery Sergeant is typically called "Gunny", and (much less often) "Guns". A Master Gunnery Sergeant is often called "Master Guns". Likewise, Lance Corporals are often referred to (derisively) as "Lance Coolies", "Lances", or "Lance Criminals". Though they are not usually called by rank due to their status as "non-rates". Unlike the US Army, no enlisted personnel is referred to as "Sarge", and most NCOs will take offense to the term. Likewise, ranks such as Staff Sergeant or Gunnery Sergeant, are never shortened to Sergeant. Warrant Officers
- W-1, Warrant Officer, WO
- W-2, Chief Warrant Officer 2, CWO2
- W-3, Chief Warrant Officer 3, CWO3
- W-4, Chief Warrant Officer 4, CWO4
- W-5, Chief Warrant Officer 5, CWO5 NOTE 3: A Chief Warrant Officer, CWO2-CWO5, serving in the MOS 0306 "Infantry Weapons Officer" is designated as a special rank: "Marine Gunner". A Marine Gunner replaces the Chief Warrant Officer insignia on the LEFT collar with a bursting bomb insignia. Other Warrant Officers are sometimes informally also referred to as "Gunner" but this usage is not correct. Commissioned officers:
- Company-grade officers
- O-1, Second Lieutenant, 2ndLt
- O-2, First Lieutenant, 1stLt
- O-3, Captain, Capt
- Field-grade officers
- O-4, Major, Maj
- O-5, Lieutenant Colonel, LtCol
- O-6, Colonel, Col
- Generals
- O-7, Brigadier General, BGen
- O-8, Major General, MajGen
- O-9, Lieutenant General, LtGen
- O-10, General, Gen NOTE 4: There has never been any O-11 "five-star" General rank thus far in the Marine Corps, though such a rank could theoretically be created at any time by act of Congress (the first time Congress were to promote a Marine Officer to such a rank). Historically, O-11 ranks, such as "General of the Army" or "General of the Air Force" (five star General) or "Fleet Admiral" were established during WWII to allow US General- or Flag-grade officers to command foreign officers under the allied command structure who, otherwise, would have technically outranked them (an example would be a British "Field Marshal", a rank which does not exist in the US military but would be equivalent to a five-star General). Currently, no officer in any branch of the U.S. military holds a grade of O-11.

Commandants

The Commandant of the Marine Corps functions as the highest-ranking officer of the Marine Corps. Even though more senior Marine officers occasionally exist, the commandant is still in charge of the administration of the Marine Corps. The commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and reports to the Secretary of the Navy, but not to the Chief of Naval Operations. As of October 2005, Marine Generals Peter Pace (Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) and James L. Jones (Commander of the United States European Command; NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe; and a former commandant of the Marine Corps) are senior in time and grade to the commandant. The commandant is responsible for keeping the Marine Corps in fighting condition and does not serve as a direct battlefield commander. However, he is the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very high esteem among Marines. As of April 2005, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is General Michael W. Hagee, who became Commandant in January of 2003.

Appearance

Michael W. Hagee Marines are often confused with Soldiers, who are members of United States Army. Some differences in appearance are:
- Marines do not wear berets.
- Marines wear boots only with their utility uniform
- Reflecting their naval heritage, Marines do not salute under 'cover' (indoors), in the field, or when they are not wearing a 'cover' (hat).
- The Marine service uniform, roughly equivalent to business attire, has a long or short sleeve button up khaki shirt, the long-sleeved version of which is worn with a double windsor knotted necktie, and olive-green trousers. The equivalent Army uniform has a light-green shirt with forest-green trousers. Enlisted Marines wear their rank insignia on the sleeve of the service shirt, but Army privates and specialists wear their rank on the collar, and NCOs wear theirs on shoulder epaulets. Marine officers wear rank insignia on the collar, whereas Army officers wear their rank insignia in a similar manner as that of NCOs.
- The Marine class "A" service coat is olive green (as opposed to forest green for the Army) and has a waist-belt, formerly a Garrison belt for enlisted Marines and the Sam Browne belt for officers. The Marine service uniform is worn with either a barracks (service) cover, which has a bill and a round top, or a garrison cover, which comes to a peak.
- Marines are less generous with awards and unit identification; the rationale behind this is that as a member of an elite force, it is enough to be identified simply as a Marine. For example, with the exception of breast insignia denoting a few specialized qualifications such as airborne (parachute), pilot or scuba/rebreather qualification, and small red patches sewn on the utility trouser legs and covers of Landing Support Marines, Marines do not normally wear any insignia or device on their utility uniforms denoting their unit, MOS (military occupational specialty), or training.
- Traditionally, Marine officers eschew the wearing of rank insignia in combat, on the theory that it simply makes them targets (as in Vietnam) and do not allow saluting in these situations. Enlisted Marines are supposed to know who their leaders are, regardless of whether or not they are wearing rank insignia. This attitude supports the conduct of amphibious operations, the most complex of all military maneuvers. During such a maneuver, units are typically scattered and without a traditional command structure. Leaders are anyone who takes the initiative to lead, an attribute that is stressed throughout Marine Corps training and doctrine.

Utility uniform

Differences in the utility uniform include:
- The cover (hat) of the utility uniform is constructed differently. Marine covers have eight sides and corners.
- Marines wear green-colored "skivvie" undershirts with their utility uniform, even in the desert. Soldiers wear brown undershirts with BDUs/DCUs and pale undershirts with the ACU.
- Soldiers roll up the sleeves of their utility uniform so the camouflage is facing out. Marines fold their sleeves so that the lighter-colored underside faces out (known as "white-side out").
- Marines "blouse" their boots. That is, they roll the cuffs of their trousers back inside and tighten them over the boots with a cord or an elastic band known as a boot band. Soldiers either blouse their boots or tuck their trousers directly into their boots.
- Marines do not wear any rank insignia or other device on the utility cover. The front of the cover has instead the Marine Corps Eagle, Globe, and Anchor emblem, and since the introduction of the MARPAT pattern, this insignia has been embroidered directly on the front--not ironed on as on previous covers.
- On their utility uniforms, Marine officers typically wear their rank insignia on both collars, while Army officers, since the introduction of the new Army Combat Uniform, wear their rank insignia on a flap located on the front of the ACU shirt. In garrison, Marine officers typically wear collar insignia made of shiny metal, as opposed to the "subdued" stitched-on insignia worn by Army officers.
- Marines wear a colored belt, often referred to as a "rigger's belt", that is color coded to represent their specific qualification under the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program.
- Marines used to wear black combat boots with the utility uniform, as do the Army and Air Force. But in 2002, light-brown suede combat boots were introduced along with a new type of camouflage, the "MARPAT" uniform. (See photo.) Effective 1 October 2004, black combat boots were declared obsolete and no longer authorized for general wear by Marines. Exception is made for black safety boots worn for certain tasks, such as parachuting.
- As of 1 October 2006, the old-style camouflage utility uniform, also worn by the Army and Air Force, will be declared obsolete. The only utility uniform authorized for Marines will be the MARPAT uniform.
- As of 2004, both the Army and the Air Force have announced plans to replace their old-style "pickle suit" camouflage utility uniforms with newer designs similar to the Marine Corps digital "MARPAT" pattern. The Navy has started experimentations on the replacement of their "dungaree" and Officer/Chief Petty Officer uniforms with a variation of the "MARPAT" pattern.

Mess Dress

Mess Dress is a formal set of attire specifically set aside for wear to banquets, balls, and functions of state. While mainly worn by staff NCO's and officers, a few junior enlisted personel can have need of it such as embassy Marines.

Dress uniform

embassy Marine's Dress uniform is the most eleborate of the United States armed forces. The most formal of a Marines uniforms, it is often refered to as "Dress Blues", due to its color (as distinguished from the green and khaki service uniforms), it can be worn in many forms.
- Dress Blue "A" has a long sleeve outer blouse, white barracks cover, with all medals and ribbons. A Mameluke Sword or NCO sword may be worn by officers, SNCOs and NCOs as authorized.
- Dress Blue "B" is the same as "A", but ribbons are worn instead of medals, and badges(optional).
- Dress Blue "C" is same as "B" but without the outer blue coat, a khaki long sleeve shirt and tie instead. Ribbons and badges are normally worn on the shirt.
- Dress Blue "D" is same as "C", but with short sleeve khaki shirt and no tie. All the blues have the same trousers, cover and shoes, although the shoes do not have to be of one brand they do have to be uniform. General officers will wear a two-inch wide scarlet "blood stripe" down the outer seam of each leg of blue dress trousers/slacks, field and company grade officers will wear a 1 1/2-inch wide scarlet stripe down the outer seam of each leg of blue dress trousers/slacks, and SNCO's and NCO's will wear a 1 1/8-inch wide scarlet stripe down the outer seam of each leg of blue dress trousers/slacks. Certain ceremonial Marine units, such as the Silent Drill Platoon, substitute white trousers for blue while performing ceremonial functions.

Culture

The Marine motto "Semper Fidelis" means "Always faithful" in Latin. This motto often appears in the shortened form "Semper Fi!" It is also the name of the official march of the Corps, composed by John Phillip Sousa. Another motto commonly used in recuriting is The Few. The Proud. The Marines.. The colors of the Marine Corps are scarlet and gold. They appear on the flag of the United States Marine Corps, along with the Marine Corps emblem: the eagle, globe, and anchor, with the eagle representing service to the country, the globe representing worldwide service, and the anchor representing naval traditions. The emblem, adopted in its present form in 1868, derives partially from ornaments worn by the Continental Marines and the British Royal Marines, and is usually topped with a ribbon reading "Semper Fidelis". Two styles of swords are worn by Marines. The Marine Corps officer sword is a Mameluke sword, similar to the sword presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the capture of Derne during the First Barbary War. Noncommissioned officers carry a different style of sword, similar in style to a Civil War, U.S. Army infantry officer's sword, making them the only enlisted service members in the U.S. Armed Forces authorized to carry a sword. Marines have several generic nicknames, mildly derogatory when used by outsiders but complimentary when used by Marines themselves. They include "jarhead" (it was said their hats on their uniform made them look like mason jars, or that the regulation "high and tight" haircut gave the appearance of a jar-lid), "gyrene" (perhaps a combination of "G.I." and "Marine"), "leatherneck", referring to the leather collar that was a part of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary War period, and "Devil Dog" (German: Teufelshund) after the Battle of Belleau Wood. This nicknaming extends to the Corps itself. The acronym 'USMC' is regularly reworked into "Uncle Sam's Misguided Children," and even Marines themselves have semi-derogatory nicknames for their Corps, with Marines during the Vietnam era labeling it 'the Crotch' and Cold War era Marines preferring 'the Suck'. A spirited cry, "Oorah!", is common among Marines, being similar in function and purpose to the Army's "Hooah" cry, but is probably more commonly used among Marines than "Hooah" would be in the Army. "Oorah!" is usually either a reply in the affirmative to a question, an acknowledgment of an order, or an expression of enthusiasm (real or false). In the 1991 Gulf War, Iraqi soldiers nicknamed the Marines "Angels of Death". Another so-called term of endearment for Marines was "blackboots". This was due to supply shortages, leaving tan, desert boots unavailable to most Marine units. Haitians called Marines participating in relief operations "whitesleeves" because of the way they roll up the sleeves of their utility uniform, called "cammies" colloquially. In Somalia, they were referred to as "The Devils in black boots", due to their rapid deployment preventing them from acquiring desert boots.

Initial training

Training for commissioned officers occurs through NROTC, the Navy Reserve Officers Training Corps; OCS, Office